Trends and Issues in Foreign Investment in India

ABSTRACT

Foreign investment is a crucial driver of economic growth and development in India. This paper examines the evolution, trends, challenges, and policy framework governing foreign investment in India, focusing on Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) and Foreign Portfolio Investment (FPI). The research highlights the impact of economic liberalization in 1991, key government initiatives such as Make in India and the Production Linked Incentive (PLI) scheme, and recent regulatory changes. It also explores sectoral trends, major investor nations, and regional disparities in foreign investment inflows. Furthermore, this study discusses the challenges faced by foreign investors, including policy uncertainty, infrastructural limitations, and global economic fluctuations. The role of regulatory bodies like the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) and the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) in shaping investment policies is analyzed. The paper concludes with recommendations for improving investment attractiveness, enhancing economic stability, and promoting sustainable foreign investment in India.

INTRODUCTION

Foreign investment plays a crucial role in shaping the economic trajectory of a nation by infusing capital, technological advancements, and managerial expertise.¹ In the case of India, foreign investment has been instrumental in transforming the country from a heavily regulated economy to one of the world’s fastest-growing markets.² Over the past three decades, India has emerged as a prime investment destination due to its rapidly growing consumer market, a vast and relatively low-cost labor force, and continuous policy reforms aimed at enhancing the ease of doing business.³

Foreign investment in India mainly takes two forms: Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) and Foreign Portfolio Investment (FPI). While FDI involves direct ownership and management of businesses, FPI is focused on investments in financial assets like stocks and bonds. Each type of investment plays a vital role in different aspects of economic growth—FDI contributes to long-term industrial expansion, whereas FPI influences capital market liquidity and stability.

Despite India’s attractiveness as an investment hub, several challenges persist. Frequent regulatory changes, infrastructural bottlenecks, and economic uncertainties continue to pose risks for foreign investors. Additionally, geopolitical tensions, trade restrictions, and evolving global economic policies impact the inflow of investments.

This paper provides a comprehensive analysis of the evolving trends and key challenges in foreign investment in India. It examines the role of government initiatives, sector-specific investment patterns, and regional variations in investment inflows. Additionally, the study explores how regulatory authorities such as the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) and the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) influence investment policies. By assessing both opportunities and risks associated with foreign investment, this research aims to present actionable recommendations to enhance India’s investment climate and ensure sustainable economic development.⁴

HISTORICAL EVOLUTION OF FOREIGN INVESTMENT IN INDIA

India’s policies on foreign investment have evolved significantly over time, reflecting changes in economic priorities, global trends, and domestic reforms. The journey of foreign investment in India can be broadly categorized into four key phases:

1. Pre-1991: Protectionist Policies and Restricted Foreign Investment Before 1991, India followed a socialist-inspired economic model, heavily influenced by the Industrial Policy Resolution of 1956 and the adoption of a License Raj system.⁵ Foreign investment was largely restricted, with most industries requiring government approval for foreign participation. The government emphasized self-reliance and import substitution, allowing foreign companies to operate only through minority joint ventures with Indian firms. Key policies during this period included:

• Foreign Exchange Regulation Act (FERA), 1973: Imposed strict controls on foreign exchange and restricted foreign ownership to a maximum of 40%.⁶
• Technology Collaboration Agreements: Permitted limited foreign technology partnerships without significant equity stakes.
• Public Sector Dominance: Most key industries (e.g., banking, steel, telecommunications) were under state control, discouraging foreign investment.

As a result of these restrictive policies, India attracted minimal foreign investment, leading to low industrial productivity, balance of payments crises, and slow economic growth.

2. 1991 Economic Reforms: Liberalization and Opening Up In 1991, India faced a severe economic crisis, characterized by low foreign exchange reserves (barely enough for three weeks of imports), high fiscal deficits, and inflation.⁷ To stabilize the economy, the government, led by Prime Minister P.V. Narasimha Rao and Finance Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh, introduced a series of economic reforms, marking the beginning of liberalization, privatization, and globalization (LPG). Major reforms included:

• Relaxation of FDI Caps: Foreign investors were allowed to hold majority stakes in certain sectors.
• Abolition of License Raj: The removal of mandatory industrial licenses for most sectors encouraged private and foreign participation.
• Introduction of FEMA (1999): Replacing FERA, this act liberalized foreign exchange regulations, making it easier for foreign businesses to invest in India.

Following these changes, India’s FDI inflows surged from $129 million in 1991 to $4.3 billion by 2000.⁸ The reforms positioned India as an emerging market for foreign investors, particularly in manufacturing, telecom, and financial services.

3. 2000s–2010s: Sectoral Expansion and Economic Growth The early 2000s saw a boom in foreign investment, driven by rapid economic growth, advancements in technology, and expansion of services and infrastructure. Key developments included:

• FDI in Retail, Telecom, and Insurance: The government gradually opened single-brand retail, telecommunications, and insurance to foreign investors.
• Special Economic Zones (SEZ) Act, 2005: Established SEZs to attract foreign businesses with tax incentives and simplified regulations.
• Mergers & Acquisitions Surge: Foreign firms began acquiring Indian companies, leading to increased foreign capital inflow.
• Rise of IT and Startups: The technology sector attracted significant FDI, with companies like Google, Microsoft, and Amazon setting up major operations in India.

By 2014, India was receiving over $30 billion in annual FDI inflows, making it one of the world’s top investment destinations.⁹

4. 2014–Present: Make in India and Policy Reforms Since 2014, India has aggressively pursued foreign investment-driven growth, launching initiatives to attract international businesses. Some notable policy measures include:

• Make in India (2014): Encourages foreign firms to set up manufacturing units in India, boosting domestic production.
• Increased FDI Limits: Higher foreign investment caps in defense, aviation, and railways.
• Production Linked Incentive (PLI) Scheme (2020): Provides incentives for foreign and domestic manufacturers in key industries like electronics, pharmaceuticals, and automobiles.
• Digital India Initiative: Promotes investments in technology, startups, and digital infrastructure.

Despite global challenges such as the COVID-19 pandemic, FDI inflows reached $83 billion in 2021–22, reflecting continued investor confidence in India’s growth potential.¹⁰

TRENDS IN FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENT (FDI)

Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) has been a crucial driver of India’s economic growth, contributing to industrial expansion, job creation, and technological advancements. Over the past three decades, FDI inflows have increased significantly, making India one of the most attractive destinations for global investors. Several key trends have emerged in FDI inflows, reflecting sectoral preferences, geographic patterns, and policy influences.

1. Steady Growth in FDI Inflows India has witnessed a consistent rise in FDI inflows, particularly after the economic liberalization of 1991. FDI inflows, which were $129 million in 1991, surged to $83 billion in 2021–22, demonstrating a strong upward trajectory. The steady rise in foreign investment can be attributed to:

• Government Reforms: Policies such as the Make in India initiative, liberalized FDI limits, and tax incentives have encouraged foreign businesses to invest in India.
• Improved Ease of Doing Business: India has improved its ranking in the World Bank’s Ease of Doing Business Index, making it a more attractive investment destination.¹¹
• Sectoral Liberalization: Increased FDI caps in telecom, insurance, defense, and retail have opened new opportunities for foreign investors.

2. Sectoral Distribution of FDI FDI inflows in India are highly concentrated in a few key sectors, with technology, e-commerce, and manufacturing attracting the most investment. As of 2023, the top sectors receiving FDI were:

• Technology and IT Services (44% of total FDI): India has become a global hub for software services, artificial intelligence, and cloud computing, attracting investments from companies like Google, Microsoft, and Amazon.¹²
• E-commerce and Retail (18%): The rapid growth of online shopping platforms such as Flipkart (backed by Walmart) and Amazon India has fueled foreign investment in this sector.
• Automobile and Electric Vehicles (12%): Companies like Tesla and Hyundai have announced large investments in India’s EV and automobile manufacturing sector.
• Pharmaceuticals and Healthcare (10%): The pandemic highlighted India’s potential as a global pharmaceutical supplier, driving FDI inflows into vaccine manufacturing and medical research.
• Telecom and Digital Infrastructure (8%): Investments in 5G technology and data centers have increased, with companies like Facebook (Meta) and Google investing in India’s digital ecosystem.

3. Geographic Distribution of FDI FDI inflows are not evenly distributed across India, with a few states receiving the majority of investments. The top five states attracting FDI are:

1. Maharashtra (27% of total FDI): The state remains the top investment destination, mainly due to Mumbai’s financial hub and Pune’s IT industry.¹³
2. Karnataka (23%): Bengaluru has emerged as a global center for startups, IT services, and R&D investments.
3. Gujarat (15%): The state’s industrial corridors, SEZs, and ease of doing business policies have attracted large investments in manufacturing and petrochemicals.
4. Tamil Nadu (12%): A major hub for automobiles, electronics, and textile industries, with increasing foreign participation.
5. Delhi-NCR (10%): Due to its strategic location, infrastructure, and services sector, Delhi-NCR attracts significant FDI inflows.

4. Greenfield vs. Mergers & Acquisitions (M&A) Investment Trends Foreign investors enter the Indian market through two primary modes:

• Greenfield Investments: These involve setting up new businesses, factories, or infrastructure projects from scratch. Greenfield FDI has been the dominant mode in sectors like manufacturing, IT, and renewable energy.
• Mergers & Acquisitions (M&A): Foreign companies often acquire existing Indian firms to expand their presence rapidly. M&A investments have increased in banking, pharmaceuticals, and retail.

5. Recent Policy-Driven FDI Growth Recent policy measures have further boosted FDI inflows in India:

• Production Linked Incentive (PLI) Scheme (2020): Aimed at attracting foreign investment in electronics, pharmaceuticals, and automobile manufacturing.
• Relaxation of FDI Norms in Insurance (2021): The FDI cap in the insurance sector was raised from 49% to 74%, encouraging greater participation from global insurers.
• 100% FDI in Single-Brand Retail: Companies like Apple and IKEA have leveraged this policy to set up wholly-owned retail operations in India.

GOVERNMENT POLICIES TO ATTRACT INVESTMENT

The Indian government has undertaken numerous policy measures to attract foreign investment and improve India’s business environment. These initiatives focus on simplifying regulations, enhancing infrastructure, and providing financial incentives to foreign investors. The key policy measures include:

1. Ease of Doing Business Reforms The government has prioritized reducing bureaucratic hurdles and regulatory complexity to improve India’s business climate. Some significant reforms include:

• Digitization of Approvals: Online portals like National Single Window System (NSWS) simplify business registration and investment approvals.¹⁴
• Fast-Track Environmental Clearances: Industrial projects now receive quicker environmental and land-use clearances, reducing investment delays.
• Reduction in Compliance Burdens: The government has eliminated over 25,000 redundant compliances, making it easier for businesses to operate.

Due to these reforms, India improved its ranking in the World Bank’s Ease of Doing Business Index from 142nd in 2014 to 63rd in 2020.

2. Higher FDI Limits in Key Sectors The government has progressively relaxed FDI caps in various sectors to attract foreign investments:

• Insurance Sector: FDI cap increased from 49% to 74% (2021).
• Defense Sector: 74% automatic route FDI in defense manufacturing, with 100% allowed under government approval.
• Retail & E-commerce: 100% FDI permitted in single-brand retail and marketplace-based e-commerce.
• Railways & Infrastructure: 100% FDI allowed in railway infrastructure, airports, and metro rail projects.

These policy changes have encouraged global firms to expand their operations in India.

3. Production Linked Incentive (PLI) Scheme Launched in 2020, the PLI scheme aims to boost domestic manufacturing and attract foreign investors by offering financial incentives to companies in strategic sectors.¹⁵ The government has allocated ₹1.97 lakh crore ($26 billion) across 13 sectors, including:

• Electronics & Mobile Manufacturing: Companies like Apple, Samsung, and Foxconn have increased their manufacturing presence in India.
• Automobiles & Electric Vehicles (EVs): Attracting investments from Tesla, Hyundai, and Tata Motors.
• Pharmaceuticals & APIs: Strengthening India’s position as a global pharmaceutical hub.

4. Atmanirbhar Bharat (Self-Reliant India) Initiative Launched in 2020 as a response to global supply chain disruptions, this initiative aims to reduce import dependence and encourage foreign companies to manufacture in India. Key measures include:

• Incentives for Local Manufacturing: Encouraging foreign firms to set up manufacturing plants in India instead of importing goods.
• Increased R&D Investment: Promoting innovation in defense, space, and renewable energy sectors.

5. Special Economic Zones (SEZs) and Industrial Corridors The government has established SEZs and industrial corridors to provide infrastructure and tax benefits to foreign investors:

• Delhi-Mumbai Industrial Corridor (DMIC): A $100 billion mega-project to boost manufacturing and exports.¹⁶
• Chennai-Bengaluru Industrial Corridor (CBIC): Facilitating investment in electronics and automobile industries.
• GIFT City (Gujarat International Finance Tec-City): A special zone for international financial services.

These projects aim to create world-class industrial infrastructure and make India a global investment hub.

FUTURE OUTLOOK AND RECOMMENDATIONS

India has strong potential to remain a top global investment destination, but policy stability, infrastructure development, and regulatory reforms will be crucial for sustaining investor confidence. The future of foreign investment in India will be shaped by:

1. Strengthening Policy Stability and Transparency

• Frequent policy changes create uncertainty for foreign investors. Establishing a clear, predictable investment policy framework will help attract long-term investments.
• Improving dispute resolution mechanisms to ensure faster legal arbitration and contract enforcement.

2. Improving Infrastructure and Logistics

• Large-scale investments are needed in roads, ports, and digital infrastructure to reduce business costs.
• Expanding smart cities and industrial corridors will further boost investment attractiveness.

3. Promoting Sustainable and Green Investments

• The government must encourage FDI in renewable energy, electric mobility, and sustainable manufacturing to meet climate goals.
• Strengthening environmental, social, and governance (ESG) policies will align India with global investment trends.

4. Strengthening Trade Relations and Reducing Dependence on China

• Expanding free trade agreements (FTAs) with the European Union, the UK, and ASEAN can attract more FDI.
• Reducing reliance on China for raw materials and electronic components by boosting domestic supply chains.

5. Simplifying Tax Regulations and Reducing Bureaucratic Delays

• Implementing a simpler, more transparent tax regime will help attract multinational corporations.
• Cutting red tape and approval delays will improve investor confidence.

6. Enhancing India’s Digital Economy and Start-up Ecosystem

• Strengthening FDI in AI, blockchain, and fintech sectors will boost India’s status as a digital powerhouse.
• Expanding government support for startups and venture capital funding to attract technology-driven investments.

ISSUES AND CHALLENGES IN FOREIGN INVESTMENT

Despite India’s progress in attracting foreign investment, several structural, regulatory, and global challenges continue to impact investor confidence. These challenges must be addressed to sustain long-term FDI and FPI inflows.

1. Policy and Regulatory Uncertainty Frequent changes in FDI regulations, sectoral investment caps, and tax policies create uncertainty for investors. Key concerns include:

• Retrospective Taxation: In the past, India introduced retrospective tax policies, affecting companies like Vodafone and Cairn Energy. Although the government scrapped the law in 2021, investor confidence took a hit.¹⁷
• Sudden Policy Shifts: Changes in e-commerce regulations (such as new rules for Amazon and Flipkart) disrupt business operations and investment planning.

2. Infrastructure Deficiencies and Logistics Bottlenecks India’s infrastructure challenges continue to deter investors, particularly in manufacturing and logistics-dependent industries. Key concerns include:

• Poor Transport Connectivity: Although major cities have modern infrastructure, many industrial regions still suffer from inadequate roads, ports, and rail links.
• Power Supply Issues: Unreliable electricity supply increases operational costs for manufacturing firms.
• High Logistics Costs: India’s logistics costs (around 14% of GDP) are significantly higher than China (8-10%) and developed nations, making exports less competitive.¹⁸

3. Protectionist Policies and National Security Concerns

• Increased Investment Restrictions: In 2020, India imposed stricter FDI rules for neighboring countries, particularly China, requiring government approval for investments. This affected funding for Indian startups previously backed by Chinese firms like Alibaba and Tencent.
• Data Localization Requirements: The Personal Data Protection Bill (PDPB) mandates that foreign companies store certain data within India, increasing compliance costs.

4. Complex Taxation System and Bureaucratic Delays India’s tax system has improved with GST and corporate tax reductions, but challenges persist:

• Tax Litigation and Uncertainty: Foreign firms still face lengthy legal battles over tax disputes.
• Bureaucratic Red Tape: Although digital reforms have helped, foreign companies still face approval delays for land acquisition and environmental clearances.

5. Global Economic Fluctuations and Geopolitical Risks

• Recession and Interest Rate Changes: High US Federal Reserve interest rates reduce capital inflows to emerging markets like India.
• Trade Wars and Supply Chain Disruptions: US-China tensions and the Russia-Ukraine conflict have impacted global capital flows.
• Currency Fluctuations: A weak rupee increases costs for foreign investors and impacts FPI outflows.¹⁹

6. Regional Investment Disparities

• Uneven FDI Distribution: While states like Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Gujarat receive high FDI inflows, eastern and northeastern states attract very little.
• Need for Balanced Development: The government must promote investments in underdeveloped regions through tax incentives and infrastructure development.

7. Slow Legal Processes and Dispute Resolution

• Contract Enforcement Delays: India ranks low on contract enforcement in global business rankings, discouraging foreign companies from entering into long-term projects.
• Arbitration Challenges: While India is a signatory to international arbitration conventions, delays in legal enforcement remain a concern.

Conclusion

Foreign investment is critical for India’s economic growth, supporting industrial expansion, job creation, and technology transfer. India has made significant progress in attracting FDI and FPI, particularly in technology, e-commerce, and manufacturing sectors. However, regulatory uncertainty, infrastructure constraints, and global risks remain key challenges.

To sustain its attractiveness as a top investment destination, India must focus on policy stability, infrastructure modernization, and balanced regional growth. Strengthening ease of doing business, reducing tax disputes, and simplifying approval processes will further enhance investor confidence. By addressing these issues, India can solidify its position as a global investment hub and achieve long-term economic sustainability.

Footnotes: ¹ United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), World Investment Report 2023, New York: United Nations, 2023. 

² Economic Survey of India 2022-23, Ministry of Finance, Government of India.

³ World Bank, Ease of Doing Business Report 2023, Washington, D.C.: World Bank Group, 2023.

⁴ Economic Advisory Council to the Prime Minister, India’s Investment Potential and Challenges, New Delhi: Government of India, 2023.

⁵ Planning Commission of India, Industrial Policy Resolution of 1956, Government of India.

⁶ Foreign Exchange Regulation Act (FERA), 1973, Ministry of Finance, Government of India.

⁷ Arvind Panagariya, India: The Emerging Giant, Oxford University Press, 2008. ²

⁸ UNCTAD, World Investment Report 2001, United Nations, 2001.

⁹ Economic Survey of India 2014-15, Ministry of Finance, Government of India.

¹⁰ Reserve Bank of India (RBI), Annual Report 2021-22, RBI Publications.

¹¹ World Bank, Ease of Doing Business Report 2023, Washington, D.C.: World Bank Group.

¹² Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (DPIIT), FDI Sectoral Analysis 2023, Ministry of Commerce & Industry, Government of India.

¹³ Ministry of Commerce & Industry, State-Wise FDI Inflows Report 2023, Government of India.

¹⁴ National Single Window System (NSWS), Investment Clearance Portal, Ministry of Commerce & Industry, Government of India.

¹⁵ NITI Aayog, Production Linked Incentive (PLI) Scheme Report, Government of India, 2022.

¹⁶ Delhi-Mumbai Industrial Corridor Development Corporation (DMICDC), Project Overview & Investment Report, Government of India.

¹⁷ Ministry of Finance, Retrospective Taxation Repeal & FDI Impact Report, Government of India, 2021.

¹⁸ NITI Aayog, Logistics Costs and Infrastructure Development in India, 2023.

¹⁹ Reserve Bank of India (RBI), Impact of Rupee Depreciation on Foreign Investments, 2023.