Cybersecurity and Women’s Rights: Online Harassment and Indian Legal Safeguards

Summary: This article examines how digital technology can both support women’s rights and facilitate online harassment, stalking, image-based abuse, privacy violations and coercive surveillance. It reviews the role of social media activism, mobile safety applications, crowdsourced reporting platforms and artificial intelligence in public awareness and safety, while identifying limitations arising from unequal digital access, insecure data handling, algorithmic bias and inconsistent moderation. The paper considers international initiatives and outlines a proposed qualitative research methodology involving interviews, case studies and content analysis; it does not report completed interviews or empirical findings. It recommends accessible multilingual safety tools, gender-inclusive design, digital literacy, accountable complaint mechanisms and safeguards for sensitive personal information. In India, relevant legal protections include offences concerning voyeurism and stalking under sections 77 and 78 of the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2023, applicable provisions of the Information Technology Act, 2000, and intermediary grievance obligations under the Information Technology (Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics Code) Rules, 2021. The Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023 provides a statutory framework whose individual obligations must be assessed according to their notified commencement dates. The central conclusion is that technology can contribute to safety and agency only when effective legal remedies, privacy, accessibility and institutional accountability operate together.

Cybersecurity and Women’s Rights: Examining Legal Safeguards Against Online Harassment and Gender-Based Violence

Introduction

Women’s rights have long been a central issue in global human rights discourse, encompassing the right to safety, education, political participation, equal pay, and freedom from discrimination and violence. Over the past few decades, significant progress has been made in advancing these rights, yet women in many parts of the world continue to face systemic barriers and injustices. The digital age has introduced new dimensions to both the protection and the violation of women’s rights, creating opportunities for empowerment while also raising fresh concerns about safety and equality online.

In today’s interconnected world, protecting women’s rights has become more complex and urgent. Online platforms can serve as spaces for expression, activism, and support, but they are also increasingly used as tools for harassment, surveillance, and misinformation targeting women. Ensuring that women can participate freely and safely in the digital space is critical to achieving broader goals of gender equality and social justice.

Information Technology (IT) plays a pivotal role in this evolving landscape. From mobile apps designed to assist women in emergency situations to data analytics tools that track gender-based violence, IT has become a powerful ally in the fight for women’s rights. It offers new ways to document abuses, raise awareness, and connect women across borders, allowing them to advocate for change and access critical resources.

The purpose of this research is to explore how IT contributes to the protection and advancement of women’s rights. This includes examining the tools and platforms that have proven effective, understanding the challenges faced in implementation, and identifying ways technology can be better leveraged for positive social impact. The significance of this study lies in its potential to inform future policies and tech-based initiatives that prioritize gender equity in both physical and digital spaces.

Background and Literature Review

Historical Perspective on Women’s Rights and Legal Protections

The struggle for women’s rights has evolved through multiple waves of activism and reform, beginning with early movements advocating for suffrage and legal recognition. In the 20th century, international frameworks such as the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) helped solidify gender equality as a global human rights concern¹. Legal protections have since expanded to cover areas such as domestic violence, reproductive rights, and workplace discrimination. However, the enforcement of these rights remains inconsistent across regions, often influenced by socio-cultural and political factors.

Evolution of IT and Its Intersection with Social Justice

Information Technology has transformed nearly every aspect of human life, including the way social movements organize and advocate for change. Initially used as a tool for communication, IT has grown into a mechanism for data collection, real-time reporting, public awareness campaigns, and digital activism. Movements like #MeToo and #SayHerName illustrate how digital platforms can elevate women’s voices and bring attention to systemic abuse². Technology now plays a dual role — as both an enabler of social justice and, at times, a space where rights violations can occur, such as through cyberbullying, online harassment, and surveillance.

Key Academic Works or Studies on Tech-Driven Human Rights Efforts

Several studies have examined the broader impact of technology on human rights advocacy. Research by scholars such as Zeynep Tufekci has explored how social media empowers marginalized voices, giving activists tools to mobilize quickly and reach global audiences³. Similarly, work published in journals like Information Technologies & International Development has analyzed how mobile applications are being used to report gender-based violence or provide access to legal resources. These studies underscore the potential of IT to strengthen civil society efforts and hold institutions accountable.

Gaps in Existing Research on IT’s Contribution to Women’s Empowerment

Despite growing interest in the intersection of technology and human rights, there is still a noticeable gap in targeted research that evaluates IT’s specific impact on women’s empowerment and protection. Much of the existing literature focuses broadly on digital activism or access to technology, with limited analysis of how IT tools are tailored to address gender-specific threats. Moreover, there is a lack of data on the effectiveness of tech-based interventions in rural or underserved communities. This gap highlights the need for more inclusive and gender-sensitive research that evaluates not only access to technology, but also its actual utility in safeguarding women’s rights in diverse socio-economic contexts.

Conceptual Framework

Defining Key Terms

Information Technology (IT) refers to the use of systems—particularly computers, telecommunications, and other digital tools—for storing, retrieving, transmitting, and manipulating data. In the context of human rights, IT includes everything from mobile apps and social media platforms to cloud-based data systems that facilitate real-time communication and information dissemination¹.

Digital rights are the human rights and legal protections that apply in the online environment. These include the rights to privacy, freedom of expression, access to information, and protection from surveillance or digital harassment². For women, digital rights also encompass safe access to the internet and the ability to participate fully in digital spaces without fear of abuse.

Gender-based violence online (GBVO) refers to harmful acts directed at individuals based on their gender, carried out through digital channels. These can include cyberstalking, online threats, image-based abuse, doxxing, and other forms of harassment that disproportionately affect women and marginalized genders³. It is increasingly recognized as a significant barrier to women’s full participation in digital life.

Theoretical Foundations

This research is grounded in several theoretical approaches that help frame the relationship between IT and women’s rights. First, feminist theory offers a lens for understanding how gendered power dynamics are reproduced in both physical and digital spaces. Feminist theorists argue that technology is not neutral; rather, it reflects the values of the societies that produce and use it⁴.

Digital activism theory is another key foundation, focusing on how individuals and groups use digital tools to promote political or social change. This theory emphasizes the role of online platforms in mobilizing support, building communities, and holding institutions accountable⁵. It is particularly relevant in examining how women organize, resist, and advocate for their rights through technology.

Finally, human rights frameworks such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) establish the principles of dignity, equality, and non-discrimination. These frameworks are now being expanded to include digital domains, advocating for women’s equal access to and safety within technology-driven environments⁶.

Models and Frameworks Connecting IT to Rights Protection

Several conceptual models help illustrate the link between IT tools and the protection of women’s rights. One such model is the ICT for Development (ICT4D) framework, which views technology as a catalyst for social and economic development. When applied to gender rights, ICT4D highlights how access to digital tools can empower women through education, legal awareness, and civic engagement⁷.

Another relevant model is the Digital Empowerment Pathway, which outlines how technology can lead from basic access to meaningful participation. This model emphasizes that true empowerment requires more than connectivity—it involves digital literacy, security, and the ability to influence policy or discourse.

Together, these theoretical and conceptual tools provide a strong foundation for analyzing how IT can support, strengthen, and at times complicate the protection of women’s rights in a rapidly changing digital world.

Methodology

Research Design

This paper proposes a qualitative research design, as it seeks to understand how Information Technology (IT) is used to support and protect women’s rights in real-world contexts. A qualitative approach allows for an in-depth exploration of experiences, practices, and perspectives from various stakeholders, including activists, organizations, and female users of digital platforms. This approach is appropriate when the goal is to capture meaning, interpretation, and lived experiences rather than to quantify data¹.

Data Collection Methods

To gather rich and relevant information, the study will utilize a combination of semi-structured interviews, case studies, and content analysis.

• Interviews will be conducted with human rights advocates, digital safety experts, NGO workers, and women who have used technology-based tools for protection or advocacy.
• Case studies of existing platforms or campaigns (e.g., SafeCity, HarassMap, or UN Women’s digital initiatives) will help illustrate how IT is applied in different cultural and legal contexts⁽²⁾.
• Content analysis of online materials, such as social media campaigns or NGO reports, will help identify common themes, challenges, and successes in tech-based efforts to protect women⁽³⁾.

If undertaken, combining these methods could enable the research to examine the topic from multiple angles.

Sample Selection

Participants for interviews will be selected through purposive sampling, targeting individuals with direct involvement or expertise in gender rights and digital tools. This includes professionals from women’s rights organizations, digital security trainers, and platform moderators. The sample size will be limited to around 10–15 individuals to maintain depth over breadth and allow for detailed thematic analysis⁴.

Ethical Considerations

Given the sensitive nature of the topic—particularly issues related to gender-based violence and online harassment—several ethical safeguards will be observed.

• Informed consent will be obtained from all participants.
• Participants will have the option to remain anonymous and to withdraw at any stage.
• Data will be stored securely and used solely for academic purposes.
• Interviews discussing trauma or violence will be handled with care, and resources for mental health support will be offered where necessary⁽⁵⁾.

The study will also ensure cultural sensitivity and respect for diverse identities, recognizing that gender, digital access, and safety are influenced by intersectional factors such as race, class, and geography.

Limitations of the Study

This research acknowledges several limitations.

• As a qualitative study, the findings will not be statistically generalizable to all populations.
• The sample may be limited by accessibility, particularly in reaching participants from remote or under-resourced areas.
• Self-reported data may carry biases, especially when discussing personal or traumatic experiences.
• The fast-changing nature of digital tools and policies may affect the long-term relevance of the findings⁽⁶⁾.

Despite these limitations, the study aims to offer valuable insights that can inform future technological interventions and policy development in the field of women’s rights.

Tools and Platforms in Women’s Rights Protection

Role of Social Media in Amplifying Women’s Voices

Social media platforms such as Twitter, Facebook, and Instagram have become essential tools for women to share their stories, mobilize support, and raise awareness about gender-based violence and discrimination. Movements like #MeToo, #TimesUp, and #NotOkay began online and evolved into global campaigns that exposed widespread abuse and empowered survivors to speak publicly¹. These platforms break down geographic and cultural barriers, allowing women from different backgrounds to connect and build solidarity. Social media also pressures institutions to respond more transparently, making it a powerful vehicle for accountability.

Mobile Apps for Safety

The development of mobile safety applications has significantly enhanced the ability of women to respond to threats in real time. Apps like Safetipin, bSafe, and Circle of 6 offer features such as GPS tracking, emergency alerts, location-based risk ratings, and quick access to emergency contacts. These tools not only provide immediate responses to danger but also collect valuable data on public safety that can be used for advocacy and urban planning. In many regions, NGOs and governments have adapted or sponsored similar technologies to meet local needs, making these tools more accessible to at-risk populations.

Digital Platforms for Reporting Abuse or Seeking Help

In addition to safety-focused apps, several platforms now exist to facilitate the reporting of abuse and to provide women with access to legal or psychological support. Websites like HarassMap in Egypt and SafeCity in India allow users to anonymously report incidents of harassment, which are then mapped geographically to highlight problem areas³. This crowdsourced data gives women a sense of shared experience and provides evidence that can be used to influence policy decisions. Many of these platforms also link users to support services, including helplines, legal advice, and counseling.

Use of Big Data and AI to Monitor Online Harassment

Advanced technologies such as big data analytics and artificial intelligence (AI) are increasingly being deployed to detect and respond to online abuse. Social media companies are using machine learning algorithms to identify hate speech, threats, and patterns of targeted harassment, sometimes even before users report them. Non-profit organizations and academic researchers have also begun to use AI to analyze large-scale online conversations and identify gendered abuse trends. For example, the Data2X initiative aims to leverage big data to close gender data gaps and better inform gender-responsive policy interventions⁵.

While these technologies offer promising solutions, they also raise concerns about privacy, algorithmic bias, and the risk of misuse. Nevertheless, when designed ethically and inclusively, IT tools can play a vital role in creating safer and more equitable digital environments for women.

Case Studies and Real-World Applications

National or International Examples

One of the most impactful global examples of technology empowering women’s rights is the #MeToo movement, which began in 2006 but gained viral momentum in 2017 after allegations against high-profile figures surfaced online. Social media platforms, particularly Twitter and Facebook, became tools for millions of women to share personal experiences of harassment and abuse, creating a global solidarity network and influencing legal, cultural, and organizational reforms¹.

Another successful initiative is SafeCity, an India-based platform that collects and maps anonymous reports of sexual harassment in public spaces. By allowing women to share their experiences, SafeCity creates a visual representation of “hotspots” for unsafe areas, which is then used for awareness campaigns, policy advocacy, and urban safety planning. SafeCity’s model has been adopted in other countries, illustrating the cross-border scalability of IT-based rights protection.

At the international level, UN Women has launched several digital campaigns and tools aimed at addressing violence against women. For example, the Global Flagship Programme “Safe Cities and Safe Public Spaces” incorporates mobile data, geolocation tools, and digital safety audits to address harassment and create safer urban environments³. UN Women has also promoted digital literacy programs and tech initiatives that help women access legal rights and services in conflict and crisis settings.

How Grassroots Movements Use IT for Advocacy

Grassroots organizations are increasingly turning to technology to amplify their messages and engage local communities. Platforms like WhatsApp, Telegram, and Signal are used for organizing protests, sharing safety tips, and coordinating rapid responses to threats. In Kenya, for instance, the KICTANet (Kenya ICT Action Network) collaborates with civil society to monitor and respond to digital violence against women during election periods, using online reports and community outreach.

In Latin America, feminist collectives such as Ni Una Menos utilize social media campaigns and live-streamed protests to raise awareness of femicide and systemic violence. Their digital advocacy strategies include hashtags, online petitions, and the use of storytelling to bring visibility to victims and survivors. These movements demonstrate how low-cost digital tools can be used effectively for grassroots organizing and transnational advocacy⁵.

Governmental or NGO-Led Programs Using Technology

Governments and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) have also embraced digital platforms to protect women. In Canada, the ShelterSafe.ca website offers an interactive map that connects women with local emergency shelters and legal aid services. The platform ensures that help is available even for those who cannot safely make phone calls⁶.

In Pakistan, the Punjab Safe Cities Authority has deployed surveillance technologies and citizen apps to help monitor urban safety. The initiative includes a mobile app that allows women to report crimes and alert law enforcement in real-time⁷. Similarly, the Digital Rights Foundation, also based in Pakistan, runs a Cyber Harassment Helpline and has developed digital safety guides for women facing online abuse⁸.

These examples show that when technology is integrated thoughtfully into advocacy, service delivery, and public safety efforts, it can be a transformative force in protecting women’s rights.

Challenges and Ethical Concerns

One of the most persistent challenges in using technology to protect women’s rights is the digital divide—the unequal access to internet and digital tools between and within countries. In many low-income regions, women are significantly less likely than men to own a smartphone, access mobile internet, or receive digital literacy training¹. This inequality limits the reach and effectiveness of tech-based interventions, often leaving behind the very populations most at risk of violence or discrimination. Rural women, women with disabilities, and those in conflict zones face additional barriers to accessing life-saving digital services.

Online Harassment and Lack of Regulation

While digital platforms offer new spaces for women’s expression and advocacy, they have also become breeding grounds for online harassment, including hate speech, threats, and doxxing. The anonymity and scale of the internet often embolden perpetrators, while existing laws and platform policies are frequently inadequate or inconsistently enforced². Women journalists, activists, and public figures are particularly vulnerable, facing coordinated attacks that silence their voices and discourage civic participation³. The lack of a clear legal framework in many countries leaves victims with limited recourse and platforms with broad discretion in moderating content.

Data Privacy Issues

The collection and use of personal data through mobile apps and online platforms raise serious privacy and security concerns, especially in sensitive areas like reporting abuse or seeking emergency assistance. Many safety apps and websites gather location data, contact information, and personal histories, which, if mishandled or breached, could place users at greater risk. In some cases, women fleeing domestic violence or political persecution have been exposed due to insecure digital tools. Without robust data protection laws and ethical design standards, technology intended for protection can inadvertently cause harm.

Misuse of Surveillance or AI

Emerging technologies like artificial intelligence (AI) and surveillance systems pose a double-edged sword. While they can be useful in detecting patterns of abuse or monitoring public safety, they can also be misused by authoritarian regimes or abusive individuals to control or monitor women. For example, facial recognition technology and predictive policing algorithms have been criticized for racial and gender bias, leading to disproportionate targeting of marginalized groups⁵. In domestic settings, spyware and location-tracking apps are increasingly used as tools of intimate partner surveillance, turning technology into a mechanism of coercion rather than empowerment⁶.

These ethical concerns highlight the need for gender-sensitive design, transparent data practices, and stronger legal frameworks that prioritize user safety and digital rights. Addressing these challenges is essential to ensuring that technological solutions genuinely advance, rather than undermine, women’s rights.

Recommendations and Future Directions

Suggestions for Improving IT-Driven Interventions

To ensure that technology fulfills its potential in safeguarding women’s rights, IT-driven interventions must be more accessible, user-centered, and responsive to real-world needs. Developers should prioritize co-designing digital tools with the very women who are meant to use them—especially those from marginalized or underserved communities. User-friendly interfaces, local language options, and offline functionality can significantly increase adoption rates in regions with limited connectivity¹. Additionally, incorporating feedback loops into apps and platforms can help ensure that tools remain relevant, effective, and safe over time.

Policy Recommendations

Strong regulatory frameworks are essential to protect women in digital spaces. Governments should implement and enforce comprehensive cyber laws that criminalize online harassment, data misuse, and surveillance abuse. These laws must also mandate transparency and accountability from tech companies, including clearer content moderation policies and reporting mechanisms². Moreover, digital literacy should be integrated into national education policies, ensuring that girls and women are equipped to navigate online environments safely and confidently.

International cooperation is equally important. Multilateral organizations like the UN and regional bodies such as the African Union or EU can play a role in setting minimum standards for digital rights, particularly where cross-border online abuse or data flows are involved⁴.

Encouraging Tech Development with a Gender-Inclusive Lens

Technology development must shift from being gender-neutral to gender-inclusive. This means ensuring gender diversity in tech leadership, coding teams, and design processes to avoid biased algorithms and exclusionary features. Ethical guidelines for tech development should be expanded to include gender impact assessments, much like environmental or safety audits⁵. Encouraging public–private partnerships to fund and incubate women-led tech startups, especially those focused on safety and advocacy, is another effective way to center women’s needs in innovation.

Areas for Further Research

There is a need for more evidence-based studies on the long-term impact of tech interventions on women’s rights and safety. Future research should focus on the effectiveness of mobile safety apps, the psychological toll of online abuse, and the intersection of digital access with race, disability, and class. In particular, there is a gap in research on non-Western contexts, where different cultural, legal, and technological environments may influence how women use and benefit from digital tools⁶.

Furthermore, as technologies like artificial intelligence and blockchain become more widely used, there is a pressing need to examine their ethical and social implications for gender justice. Research should explore how these tools can either reinforce or dismantle existing inequalities in access, representation, and safety.

Indian Legal Safeguards Against Online Harassment

Indian law addresses different forms of technology-facilitated abuse through distinct provisions rather than a single comprehensive offence of online harassment. Under the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2023, section 77 concerns voyeurism, including dissemination of images of a private act in the circumstances specified by that section. Section 78 addresses stalking, including monitoring a woman’s use of the internet, email or other electronic communication, subject to statutory exceptions. Section 351 addresses criminal intimidation where its ingredients are established. Whether a particular incident constitutes an offence depends on the facts and statutory elements.

The Information Technology Act, 2000 separately addresses specified electronic privacy and sexually explicit content offences, including sections 66E, 67 and 67A where applicable. The Intermediary Guidelines, 2021, as amended, establish due-diligence and grievance-handling requirements for covered intermediaries. Their application, including complaint and removal timelines, depends on the type of intermediary, content and operative amendments.

The Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023 addresses processing of digital personal data within its statutory scope. Its provisions have staggered commencement and should not be described as uniformly operational without checking the relevant notification. Privacy-sensitive reporting systems should minimise unnecessary collection and exposure of survivors’ information regardless of the applicable statutory regime.

Conclusion

This paper has examined the multifaceted ways in which Information Technology (IT) is contributing to the protection and advancement of women’s rights in the digital age. From social media platforms that give voice to global movements like #MeToo, to mobile safety apps and data-driven reporting tools, digital technologies are playing an increasingly critical role in how women advocate for their safety, dignity, and equality. The examples discussed suggest that when designed thoughtfully and inclusively, IT solutions can empower women to not only report abuse and access support, but also to organize, educate, and mobilize for systemic change.

The findings reinforce the importance of IT as both a shield and a catalyst—helping to address immediate threats while also enabling long-term advocacy and reform. However, the research also brings attention to pressing challenges, including the digital divide, online harassment, data privacy concerns, and the misuse of surveillance technologies. These issues underscore the need for ethical design, robust policies, and inclusive development practices that center the experiences and needs of women.

Looking ahead, digital tools hold great promise in shaping a world where women can live, work, and express themselves freely and safely—both online and offline. For this potential to be realized, all stakeholders—governments, tech developers, civil society, and global institutions—must collaborate to ensure that technology is used not to control or harm, but to uplift, protect, and empower. By closing gaps in access, improving legal protections, and fostering a gender-inclusive digital ecosystem, we can move closer to a future that is not only technologically advanced, but also socially just and equitable for all women.

Notes and References

References to Section 2

1. United Nations. (1979). Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW). ↩
2. Mendes, K., Ringrose, J., & Keller, J. (2018). Digital feminist activism: #MeToo and the networked body. New Media & Society. ↩
3. Tufekci, Z. (2017). Twitter and Tear Gas: The Power and Fragility of Networked Protest. Yale University Press. ↩

References to Section 3

1. Castells, M. (2009). Communication Power. Oxford University Press. ↩
2. MacKinnon, R. (2012). Consent of the Networked: The Worldwide Struggle for Internet Freedom. Basic Books. ↩
3. Jane, E. A. (2017). Misogyny Online: A Short (and Brutish) History. SAGE Publications. ↩
4. Wajcman, J. (2004). Technofeminism. Polity Press. ↩
5. Earl, J., & Kimport, K. (2011). Digitally Enabled Social Change. MIT Press. ↩
6. United Nations. (2015). Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. ↩
7. Heeks, R. (2008). ICT4D 2.0: The next phase of applying ICT for international development. Computer, 41(6), 26-33. ↩

References to Section 4

1. Creswell, J. W. (2013). Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing Among Five Approaches. SAGE Publications. ↩
4. Palinkas, L. A., et al. (2015). Purposeful sampling for qualitative data collection and analysis in mixed method implementation research. Administration and Policy in Mental Health. ↩

References to Section 5

1. Mendes, K., Ringrose, J., & Keller, J. (2019). Digital Feminist Activism: #MeToo and the Digital Politics of Resistance. Oxford University Press. ↩
3. SafeCity. (2020). Annual Impact Report. Retrieved from https://www.safecity.in/ ↩
5. UN Foundation. (2021). Data2X: Using Data to Drive Gender Equality. Retrieved from https://data2x.org/ ↩

References to Section 6

1. Gill, R., & Orgad, S. (2018). The shifting terrain of sex and power: From the ‘sexualization of culture’ to #MeToo. Sexualities, 21(8), 1313–1324. ↩
3. UN Women. (2021). Safe Cities and Safe Public Spaces Global Initiative. Retrieved from https://www.unwomen.org ↩
5. Soriano, C. R. R. (2019). Feminist digital activism in Latin America. Global Media and Communication, 15(3), 331–347. ↩
6. ShelterSafe. (2022). Find a Shelter. Retrieved from https://www.sheltersafe.ca/ ↩
7. Punjab Safe Cities Authority. (2021). Annual Report. Retrieved from https://www.psca.gop.pk/ ↩
8. Digital Rights Foundation. (2021). Cyber Harassment Helpline Report. Retrieved from https://digitalrightsfoundation.pk/ ↩

References to Section 7

1. GSMA. (2022). The Mobile Gender Gap Report. Retrieved from https://www.gsma.com/ ↩
2. Citron, D. K. (2014). Hate Crimes in Cyberspace. Harvard University Press. ↩
3. Amnesty International. (2018). Toxic Twitter: A Toxic Place for Women. Retrieved from https://www.amnesty.org/ ↩
5. Buolamwini, J., & Gebru, T. (2018). Gender shades: Intersectional accuracy disparities in commercial gender classification. Proceedings of Machine Learning Research, 81, 1–15. ↩
6. Freed, D., et al. (2018). “A stalker’s paradise”: How intimate partner abusers exploit technology. Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction, 2(CSCW), 1–27. ↩

References to Section 8

1. D’Ignazio, C., & Klein, L. F. (2020). Data Feminism. MIT Press. ↩
2. UN Women. (2021). Online and ICT-Facilitated Violence Against Women and Girls During COVID-19. Retrieved from https://www.unwomen.org ↩
4. EIGE. (2021). Cyber Violence Against Women and Girls. European Institute for Gender Equality. Retrieved from https://eige.europa.eu ↩
5. Noble, S. U. (2018). Algorithms of Oppression: How Search Engines Reinforce Racism. NYU Press. ↩
6. Global Partnership for Sustainable Development Data. (2020). Bridging Gender Data Gaps: A Resource Toolkit. Retrieved from https://www.data4sdgs.org/ ↩

****

Author: A.M. Atchaya Arasi | Co-Author: Tamil Chakravarthi | Programme: LL.B. (Hons.)